Space Savvy

Gemini 5: When Space Gives You Lemons...

Not all Gemini missions are a resounding success. Gemini 5 launches on August 21, 1965 after an aborted countdown on August 19, and splashes down a week later on August 29. It is the first mission to last more than a week in space. The motto Cooper wants on the mission patch is "Eight Days or Bust" but his request is denied because of concerns the mission might fall short of its goal. The flight duration is 7 Days, 22 hours, 55 min, 14 seconds and with it, Gemini 5 takes the flight time record from the Soviet Union.

Astronauts Charles Conrad, Jr. (pilot) and C. Gordon "Gordo" Cooper (commander) make up the crew. Gemini 5 completes 120 orbits with objectives to tests fuel cells for electrical power and evaluate guidance and navigation systems to set the stage for future missions involving rendezvous and docking. In addition, 17 experiments are undertaken. An accident involving freeze-dried shrimp results in the cabin being filled with small, floating pink objects.

Gemini 5 fails to meet its objective to rendezvous with a rendezvous evaluation pod (REP) when problems develop with the fuel cell that preclude the attempt due to a decision to power down the cells. An experiment to photograph a nearby object can't be carried out after the REP rendezvous is canceled. The astronauts now must endure extreme boredom in order to achieve the flight time duration record.

A secondary objective to demonstrate controlled reentry guidance is not achieved when incorrect navigation coordinates transmit to the spacecraft computer from the ground. As a result, the craft overshoots its landing zone by 89 miles.

Maybe Gemini 5's motto should have been "Murphy On Board."

Right: Charles Conrad on board the Gemini 5. NASA photo credits.

[Series to be continued...]

Space Saavy

Gemini 4: America's First Sky Walker

The next space flights will push the envelope on what is possible in space. NASA wants a man to walk in space--outside the protective bounds of his spacecraft. Rookie astronaut Ed White is selected to make the first attempt at an EVA or Extra Vehicular Activity. His partner will be Jim McDivitt. The two men are friends and have known each other since attending University of Michigan and test pilot school together. They are known as the Gemini Twins.

Before the EVA can be attempted, astronauts have to learn what effects weightlessness will have on the human body. Since weightless conditions are difficult to simulate, a specially adapted aircraft, nicknamed The Vomit Comet, allows the astronauts to experience up to thirty seconds of weightlessness. During repeated flights, they test movement, carry out tasks and find ways to get from place-to-place under zero G conditions.

The next question that must be answered: How will the human body react to free-floating in space traveling at 17,500 in Earth orbit? No one knows. Can a man mentally and physically function in zero gravity? No one knows that either. The astronaut's suit will be the difference between life and death in a place where the temperature can fluctuate from +250 degrees Fahrenheit in the sun to -250 degrees in the shade. The greatest concern of all is the vacuum in outer space. If a suit fails, rips or tears, the differences in pressure will kill an astronaut in seconds when liquids within his body vaporize. The suit has to have systems that will keep the astronaut alive in these conditions. The risks are, quite literally, astronomical.

In the Discovery documentary When We Left Earth, astronaut Jim McDivitt says, "The suit was designed to keep us alive. It was risky and we accepted the risk. We didn't become astronauts to play it safe." The EVA is originally planned for the Gemini 6 mission.

But NASA is stunned to learn the Soviet space program has just achieved an EVA ahead of the Americans. This ups the stakes for NASA and a decision is made for Gemini 4 to perform the EVA. If White's EVA is successful, it will move the space program much closer to its goal of reaching the Moon and help the USA keep up with the Russians.

The astronauts train for the EVA in secrecy, often at night and in isolated conditions. Only a handful of people realize what America is about to attempt. NASA announces the space walk will be part of the mission just a few days before the launch. Many, including some of the astronauts, wonder if NASA is moving too fast and putting the astronauts lives in jeopardy. A problem during the EVA could set back the space program and end all chance at reaching the Moon before 1970.

Gemini 4 will be the longest spaceflight to date and the EVA the most dangerous fete ever attempted by the space program. A tracking station verifies all safety criteria were being met and NASA gives Ed White the go ahead to begin his spacewalk. After the astronauts get the hatch open, Ed White leaves his seat and exits the open hatch of the Gemini 4 capsule into space, attached to the capsule via a lifeline. He is now traveling free of the craft, 200 miles above the Earth at over 17,000 mph. Both astonauts know if the suit or the lifeline fails, White will be lost. There is no procedure in place to retrieve him if something goes wrong. As if to demonstrate the danger, a glove floats out of the capsule and drifts away.

Ed White walks in space for 36 minutes. During the experience he says, "This is the greatest experience. It's just tremendous." White is so overwhelmed by his experience he is reluctant to return to the capsule and has to be ordered to return by mission control and McDivitt. As night approaches, they are concerned about the extremes in temperature change on his suit. He makes it back before nightfall.

This first space walk undertaken by Ed White of Gemini 4 becomes a major highlight of the space program and pushes the American space program even closer to its goal of reaching the Moon.

Right: Actual photo of Ed White during Gemini 4 EVA. Photo credit NASA.

[Series to be continued...]

Space Savvy

The Gemini Program Begins with a Bang

Soon after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in Dallas on Nov. 22, 1963, Eric Sevareid, a CBS news reporter said that his legacy was his attitude and contagious spirit that all things are possible for Americans if only we have the vision and will. In a speech at Rice University on September 12, 1962, President Kennedy sets a goal to put a man on the Moon and return him safely to Earth before the end of the decade. At this point in time, the USA has a total of 20 minutes of spaceflight experience. This nearly inconceivable challenge is considered courageous and historic by some, arrogant and fool-hardy by others.

But NASA and the nation takes JFK's words to heart. The next step after the Mercury program is to graduate to the Gemini program and two-man capsules. The Mercury missions proved spaceflight was possible for human beings. Gemini will teach man how to fly to the Moon.
On September 17, 1962, a second group of astronauts arrive, four from the Air Force, two from the Navy, and two civilians. They are called The New Nine and several will become famous: Jim Lovell, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin among them. Rivalry between the astronauts is intense. Each wants to be first to step on the surface of the Moon.

John Young, one of the New Nine, and Gus Grissom of the original Mercury Seven are the first two astronauts paired for a Gemini mission. Their comaraderie and enthusiasm gives them a reputation among their peers of being a sort of 'dynamic duo.'

But there's a problem...

A more powerful rocket is needed to launch a two man capsule into space. The Air Force is developing the new Titan missiles but having difficulties adapting missile rockets to a manned Gemini vehicle. The Titans are initially a disaster (see YouTube video). One out of every five fails catastrophically. Astronauts watch as the rockets explode on the launchpad again and again. The odds aren't good enough to risk propelling a manned mission into space.

Engineers attack the problems and create safeguards and backup systems to make the rockets safer. Finally NASA launches two rockets in a row that don't explode with the unmanned Gemini 1 and Gemini 2 capsules. John Young and Gus Grissom will ride the next into space aboard Gemini 3. Their primary goal? Test the brand new rocket and capsule and return...alive. If anything goes wrong with the launch, Young and Grissom will be killed on live television with millions watching.

In a moment of optimism, Grissom names the Gemini 3 capsule The Molly Brown after the Broadway hit "The Unsinkable Molly Brown." He hopes the name will bring good luck and, if the voyage is successful, won't end with the same fate as his Liberty Bell 7 Mercury capsule which sank before recovery. The Molly Brown was the last NASA vehicle to be named by an astronaut.

The launch aboard the converted ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missile) goes flawlessly. The rocket stages fall away and the Gemini 3 capsule reaches orbit. Grissom and Young become the first Americans to fly in space together. They make three successful orbits of the earth testing important maneuvers and altitude changes that are essential first steps in reaching the Moon.

With the exception of a contraband corned beef sandwich smuggled aboard by John White (for which the crew was later reprimanded because the crumbs could have played major havoc with the instrumentation onboard), a couple of minor failed experiements and a glitch with the orbital manuevering system thrusters (that would manifest itself again in Gemini 8 as a much larger issue) the flight was without significant problems.

But re-entry is not so perfect. Back on Earth, the recovery task force of 27 ships and 126 aircraft wait while things go amiss. In an interview for the Discovery Channel documentary When We Left Earth, John Young states, "We screwed up on re-entry. When we fired the retro-rockets, we forgot the Earth rotated under us. We forgot to put the rotation of the Earth into the equation."

When the parachutes engaged, the sudden change in orientation in the capsule causes Gus Grissom to crack the plexiglas faceplate of his helmet on a control panel. The Gemini capsule is coming down about 190 miles short of the targeted recovery area. Grissom is able to make up much of this distance during assent, but Gemini 3 still lands about sixty miles off target. The men decide to deviate from standard landing procedures by not opening their capsule's hatch, and by keeping their helmets on for some time after splashdown due to smoke that was present from the thrusters. As the astronauts drift in the Atlantic waiting for rescue, Grissom gets seasick, but both men are recovered safely after an uncomfortable thirty minutes or so.

A large crowd turns out for a ticker tape parade in the cold rain of lower Manhattan to welcome the returning heroes home. The first Gemini flight has been a success and has laid the groundwork for more ambitious missions to come.

Each Gemini mission going forward will involve huge risks and giant leaps in achieving the goal set by President Kennedy. The next Gemini mission will involve another historic first for spaceflight. One of the astronauts will conduct an EVA or Extra Vehicular Activity. For the first time, man will walk in space.

[Series to be continued]

Related Links:

John W. Young, American and International Hero

The Molly Brown (Gemini 3) is on display at Spring Mill Park near Gus Grissom's hometown of Mitchell, Indiana.

More details on Gemini 3 including flight transcripts and chronology.

Official NASA Account of the Mission from On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini, by Barton C. Hacker and Charles C. Alexander is available at the link above. Published as NASA Special Publication-4203 in the NASA History Series, 1977.

Article for Space.com, June 17, 2000: Gus Grissom Didn't Sink the Libery Bell 7

Liberty Bell 7 is recovered 38 years after it sank (Space.com, July 20, 1999)

More Space Exploration YouTubes

NASA New Spacecraft and Rockets including the CEV (Crew Exploration Vehicle)

Animated simulations of things to come. Interesting, but narration on what you are viewing would have been more educational.

Plasma Rocket Prototype

Again, narration would have been helpful. I use plasma technology (with a good dose of imagination) in two of my SciFiRom projects.

Supposed NASA Video of a UFO

The management of Spacefreighters Lounge does not support or deny the claims of alien activity within Earth proximity. This video attempts a neutral stand but seems to support evidence of the UFO theory.

Recap of the Mercury Program

Continuing my Space Savvy series, here's a recap of my former posts on the Mercury Program, America's first venture into space. I posted this first round of articles several weeks ago. Articles on the Gemini, Apollo, Skylab and Space Shuttle programs will come later.

Mercury 7 Astronaut and Mission Recap

Alan Shepard - Freedom 7 - launched May 5, 1961, suborbital flight. Lieutenant Commander Alan Bartlett Shepard, Jr. of the US Navy was the first American in space, but not the first or the first human in space. His historic flight was preceded by a Russian dog, an American chimp and a Russian cosmonaut. After several delays he demanded of Mission Control, "Let's light this candle!" They did, and he reached an altitude of 116 miles on a flight that lasted 20 minutes. 45 million Americans watched. Shepard's flight answered critical questions about if human's would be able to breathe or swallow and perform basic tasks in orbit. No one knew the answer until he proved it could be done.

Gus Grissom - Liberty Bell 7 - launched July 21, 1961 after two weather delays, and completed a suborbital flight. Gus Grissom was a combat fighter in Korea who finished over one hundred missions, naming his aircraft "Scotty" after his son. He earned both the Air Medal and the Distinguished Flying Cross. In the early days of the Mercury program, Lieuteant Colonel Virgil Ivan "Gus" Grissom championed the explosive bolts used on the capsule hatches to allow for quick exit. Ironically, the bolts on his capsule spontaneously blew, resulting in the craft taking on water and the ultimate loss of his capsule with all its invaluable data, despite the best efforts by a helicopter crew to retrieve it. It was the only craft Grissom ever lost. Gus Grissom was slated as one of the first Apollo astronauts, but died tragically with two fellow astronauts when a fire broke out on the ground during training in Apollo 1.

John Glenn - Friendship 7 - launched February 20, 1962, first orbital flight, 3 orbits. Lieutenant Colonel John Herschel Glenn, Jr., a US Marine Corp pilot during the Korean war had three aircraft nearly shot out from under him but managed to land them safely. He was perhaps America's most famous astronaut. John Glenn was the first man to achieve orbit, considered to be the greatest adventure of the 21st century and helped the US catch up to the Russian's in the space race. He described the view as "tremendous" and said nothing could compare to seeing the curvature of the Earth or entire nations at a glance. He described mysterious fireflies outside his ship that raised concerns of the possibility of life in space. Those questions were later answered during Scott Carpenter's flight. Mission Control had grave concerns Glenn's Friendship 7 would burn up upon re-entry into the atmosphere when insruments showed the heat shield was loose. The straps to his retro pack were left in place in hopes this would hold the shield in place, but the extreme heat burned through the straps. Glenn splashed down safely. After recovery, NASA learned faulty instrumentation had resulted in a false alarm on the heat shield. John Glenn later became a politician and is one of only two surviving asronauts of the Mercury program.

Scott Carpenter - Aurora 7 - launched May 24, 1962, second orbital flight, 3 orbits. Lieutenant Malcolm Scott Carpenter, US Navy, was the second American to orbit the Earth. His flight lasted five hours and he achieved a maximum altitude of 164 miles and a velocity of 17,532 mph. He also identified the mysterious fireflies seen by John Glenn as frozen particles that he nicknamed "frostflies." After using up large amounts of fuel (varying stories claim sightseeing by the astronaut or a stuck valve as the cause), Mission Control was not sure he had enough fuel remaining to return to Earth safely. He was out of contact with Houston for over 40 minutes, and NASA was on the verge of declaring the first man lost in the space program when his capsule was found 250 miles beyond the recovery zone. Carpenter was fine. After a motorcycle accident that injured his arm, Carpenter resigned from NASA in 1967 and became the director of the Aquanautic Operations for the SeaLab III.

Walter Schirra - Sigma 7 - launched October 3, 1962, 6 orbits. Lieutenant Commander Walter Marty Schirra, Jr., US Navy, had a mission that lasted five hours, 15 minutes. He later filled the pilot command seat for both Gemini 6 and Apollo 7, participating in a total of three of NASA's programs.

Gordon Cooper - Faith 7 - launched May 15, 1963, 22 orbits. Captain Leroy Gordon Cooper, Jr., US Air Force, was the last astronaut to fly solo in space and flew a distance of 546,147 statute miles. His flight lasted 34 hours, 20 minutes, and he was the first astronaut to sleep in space. He later participated in Gemini flights and held the record for the largest number of man hours logged in space with 225, 15 minutes.

Captain Donald Kent Slayton, U.S. Air Force, the remaining member of the original Mercury Seven astronauts did not fly a Mercury mission due to the detection of a heart condition in August of 1959. He was later medically cleared of the heart condition and flew with the crew of the joint Apollo-Soyez Test Project in 1975. The successful test of a universal docking system paved the way for international cooperation in future missions. Slayton logged 217 hours and 28 minutes in his first space flight.

Note the short spans of time between some of these missions. When President John F. Kennedy set a goal for NASA to land a man on the moon and bring him home safely by the year 1970--only about seven years in the future at that time--his words were taken to heart. These six flights accomplished major leaps forward in the space program in an unbelievably short span of time. But Mercury was just the start of America's venture into space. The Gemini and Apollo missions to come would lay the groundwork to reach the moon, and to get us there and back again.

Earthrise

In doing my ongoing research on the NASA space program, I rediscovered this amazing moment in time. One of our first images of the Earth rising over the Moon. Some of you may remember the first introduction to an Earthrise in the old Tang commercial? The first view of Earthrise was seen from Apollo 8. The image pictured above is from NASA archive footage of Apollo 11. The quote below originated from an astronaut with the Apollo 14 mission.

The sense of wonder and achievement we once had in the space program has been lost, but for me, this sight rekindled that giddy feeling of discovery, of seeing the universe from brand new perspectives for the very first time.

The eloquent quote featured on this poster is by Astronaut Edgar Mitchell of Apollo 14:

"Suddenly, from behind the rim of the moon, in long, slow-motion moments of immense majesty, there emerges a sparkling blue and white jewel, a light, delicate sky-blue sphere laced with slowly swirling veils of white, rising gradually like a small pearl in a thick sea of black mystery. It takes more than a moment to fully realize this is Earth . . . home."

Our venture into space over the last four decades has forever changed our destiny and our understanding of the universe. Going forward, as part of my Put the Science Back in Science Fiction Romance campaign, I'll be continuing my Space Savvy series of articles focusing on the NASA missions.

For anyone interested in purchasing the poster, try a search on Google, Amazon or other sites for Earthrise. I don't want to endorse a product I haven't yet seen but I've placed an order for the poster shown above from the Tranquility Posters site.

Space Savvy

The Mercury Program Part 2

A continuing series on the history of the NASA program.

Scott Carpenter was the second American to orbit the Earth and the fourth American in space. He is also one of the two surviving Mercury Seven along with John Glenn. He may be lucky to be alive at all.

After the Freedom 7, Liberty Bell 7 and Friendship 7 came Scott Carpenter's spacecraft named _______________.

1. Rainbow 7
2. Jupiter 7
3. Venus 7
4. Aurora 7
5. Pluto 7

The answer is 4. Aurora 7 on May 24, 1962. His flight lasted five hours and his craft attained a maximum altitude of 164 miles and an orbital velocity of 17,532 miles per hour. He identified the mysterious fireflies reported by astronaut John Glenn as small particles of frozen liquid which he nicknamed "frostflies."

Scott Carpenter's flight was very controversial. Some reports claim he was so taken with the view that he used up much of his fuel moving his craft around to sightsee. As a result, it was unknown if he had enough fuel available for re-entry. For the first time, conflicts developed between Mission Control and the astronaut. Carpenter had to manually turn the capsule and fire the retrorockets to enter the atmosphere. While mission control waited in tense silence, Scott Carpenter entered radio blackout and lost contact with Mission Control for:

1. 4 minutes

2. 6 minutes

3. 10 minutes

4. 20 minutes

5. 4o minutes

Scott Carpenter was out of contact for 40 minutes. Mission Control feared his craft had entered at the wrong angle and burned up. They were on the verge of declaring the first astronaut had been lost in the space program when he was located in good health. Because of his manual reentry, he splashed down about 250 miles beyond the recovery area. He floated in the Atlantic for three hours awaiting recovery.

Some accounts claim Carpenter's craft had a pitch horizon scanner that malfunctioned, resulting in the overconsumption of fuel and the loss of fuel was not due to his efforts to see the sights.

Carpenter took a leave of absence from the program in late 1963 to train as:

1. a photographer

2. a member of the Sealab

3. a racecar driver

4. an actor

5. an airline pilot

Carpenter trained for the Navy's Sealab program. After injurying his left arm in a motorbike accident, he failed to regain mobility in his arm after two surgeries in 1964 and 1967. He was then ruled ineligible for spaceflight and resigned from NASA in August 1967. He then became the director of Aquanaut Operations for Sealab III.

Walter Schirra was the next astronaut in space. How many orbits did he fly?

1. Six

2. Four

3. Two

4. One

5. He never made orbit

Walter Schirra's Sigma 7 Mercury flight lasted 9 hours, 15 minutes and he completed six orbits of the Earth. Schirra was later in the pilot command seat for both the Gemini 6 and Apollo VII missions.

Gordon Cooper was the final astronaut to fly a Mercury spacecraft in Faith 7. He completed twenty two orbits over the course of 34 hours and 20 minutes, traveled 546,167 statute miles, was the last man to fly solo in Earth orbit and was the first to do what in space?

1. play cards

2. read a book

3. sleep

4. see Venus

5. eat dinner

Gordon Cooper was the first astronaut to sleep in space. Cooper later participated in Gemini flights and captured the top number of man-hours in space by accumulating a total of 225 hours and 15 minutes.

Recap of the Mercury Program Flights:

Alan Shepard - Freedom 7 - launched May 5, 1961, suborbital flight

Gus Grissom - Liberty Bell 7 - launched July 21, 1961, suborbital flight

John Glenn - Friendship 7 - launched February 20, 1962, first orbital flight, 3 orbits

Scott Carpenter - Aurora 7 - launched May 24, 1962, second orbital flight, 3 orbits

Walter Schirra - Sigma 7 - launched October 3, 1962, 6 orbits

Gordon Cooper - Faith 7 - launched May 15, 1963, 22 orbits

Full Names, Ranks and Branch of Service of the Mercury 7:

Lieutenant Malcolm Scott Carpenter, U.S. Navy

Captain LeRoy Gordon Cooper, Jr., U.S. Air Force

Lieutenant Colonel John Herschel Glenn, Jr., U.S. Marine Corps

Lieutenant Commander Walter Marty Schirra, Jr., U.S. Navy

Lieutenant Commander Alan Bartlett Shepard, Jr., U.S. Navy

Captain Donald Kent Slayton, U.S. Air Force

Next Post in the Series: The Gemini Program

Space Savvy: YouTubes

A few YouTube videos of historic moments in space and the Mercury Program related to my last post. Browse YouTube and you can find many more on any subject that interests you.

John Glenn's Friendship 7

Godspeed, John Glenn

Alan Shepard discusses Yuri Gagarin and "The Race"

1962 Mercury Atlas 6 and John Glenn

Mercury Freedom 7 (Over nine minutes of detail on training and flight preparation.)

Yuri Gagarin: First Speech from Space

The Redstone Rocket

Laika: Space Dog

Space Race: Russian Viewpoint

And purely for entertainment value,

What the Star Trek Enterprise Theme Should Have Been

Space Savvy

As part of my ongoing research for a current SciFiRom project, I've been studying the early space program. What I've uncovered is a wealth of valuable information and fascinating trivia. This fundamental and historical knowledge is important to my project, but it's also a great foundation for anyone writing science fiction or futuristic stories.

It occured to me this is something I could share on my blog. That's my inspiration for this week's series of articles: Space Savvy.

The Mercury Program: In The Beginning

The X-15, a rocket plane, played an integral part in research for the space program. It had enough power to take a pilot to the fringes of Earth's atmosphere where they could experience brief moments of weightlessness and look out into the blackness of space. Even so, a vehicle was needed to fly four times its top speed to put a man into orbit. How much horsepower did the X-15 have?

1. 30,000 hp
2. 400,00 hp
3. 6o0,000 hp
4. 900,000 hp
5. 1,000,000 hp

Answer: 3. 600,000 hp, but only rockets had enough speed--over 17,000 mph--and power to boost a space vehicle into orbit, so military rockets were converted for the early space program. These missions were very dangerous because the rockets had been designed to deliver warheads to a target--not human beings into space.

Because of the risks, even stunt men were considered as recruits for the first astronauts. President Eisenhower wanted test pilots. How many of the military's top pilots qualified for positions as the first astronauts?

1. 7
2. 57
3. 110
4. 307
5. 502

Answer: 3. A bit of a trick question--110 qualified, but only seven were selected. There were Scott Carpenter, Gordon Cooper, John Glenn, Gus Grissom, Alan Shepard, Walter Schirra, and Deke Slayton. Each brought specific qualities and experience to the program and they became instant celebrities with the media. Scott Carpenter, first scientist astronaut. Gordon Cooper, an exceptional pilot, often considered "the best." John Glenn, a popular Marine pilot. Gus Grissom, contributed engineering savvy and quiet intellect. Alan Shepard was extremely bright. Walter Schirra was very detail-oriented Naval pilot. Deke Slayton, an Air Force pilot "nobody messed with." They were known as the Mercury Seven.

Most of the early mission control crew came from aircraft flight desks, scientists and engineers who knew nothing about rockets or the challenges of launching a man into space. No man had ever survived a vertical blastoff on top of a rocket.

The Mercury Program was extremely challenging because familiar tools and equipment had to be invented or adapted, and all procedures rewritten or invented. Many concepts associated with space travel were foreign, such as:

1. Gravity and G-forces
2. Trajectory and retro-rockets
3. Yaw and pitch
4. G-forces and centrifugal force
5. Ignition and separation

Answer: 2. Trajectory and retrorockets. These concepts are unique to space flight and were new concepts to be grasped in order for experts to plan early missions. Gene Krantz (popular figure from the Apollo 13 movie) developed many of the early mission control procedures.

The first capsule replaced a nuclear warhead on top of a:

1. Redstone missile
2. Titan missile
3. Gemini rocket
4. Mercury booster
5. Solid fuel boosters

Answer: 1. Redstone missiles, which were developed by the Army (not the Navy). Many of the earlier test rockets blew up, flew out of control or had to be destroyed before they could fly or fall back to Earth and cause damage, injuries or death upon impact. The Redstone, known as the Army's "Old Reliable" was the rocket for the first American manned mission into space, and a forerunner for the more powerful Jupiter missile used in later flights.

Who was the first in space?

1. John Glenn
2. Ham
3. Alan Shepard
4. Yuri Gagarin
5. Laika

Answer(s): It depends on your criteria of first what? 5. Laika, a female dog who was sent aboard Sputnik II was the first living being in space, but didn't survive. The first to return alive was 2. Ham, a chimpanzee on an American mission. If you selected 3. Alan Shepard, as the first human in space, sorry, but you're wrong. It was 4. Russian Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin who beat Shepard by 20 days. Alan Shepard was the first American in space on May 5, 1961, however his flight only lasted about 20 minutes and reached a sub-orbital height of 116 miles over Earth. 1. John Glenn was the first man to achieve orbit during the next Mercury mission.

How many Americans watched the first launch of Shepard's spacecraft and what was the craft called?

1. 4 million and Friendship 1
2. 15 million and Freedom 1
3. 45 million and Freedom 7
4. 100 million and Friendship 2
5. No one had television back then and Gemini 1

Answer: 3. 45 million and Freedom 7.

What was Alan Shepard's aggravated demand to launch, after several countdown holds?

1. "Drop your coffee and press that ignition button."
2. "Light a fire, boys, and send me up!"
3. "Belay that delay and let's go!"
4. "What's it going to be? Up...or down?"
5. "Let's light this candle!"

Answer: 5. "Let's light this candle!" which was a popular phrase among pilots and flight crew at the time. (It was also prophetic, since rocket fuel developed from candle wax was a later development--see link above.) Alan Shepard's flight answered the question if people would be able to do basic things like swallow or breathe during weightless conditions, and proved man could perform almost any task in space. The excitement of the Freedom 7 flight has never been matched as Alan Shepard answered questions that were complete unknowns at the time.

The astronauts worked in specialty areas as the spacecraft were developed and redesigned. John Glenn worked on control panel design. Gus Grissom championed the explosive bolts that would quickly open the hatch. Ironically, the bolts caused problems later on his flight when they malfunctioned and his space capsule, Liberty Bell 7 with a lot of invaluable data, was sunk and lost. Grissom almost drowned, but was successfully rescued. It was the only craft Grissom ever lost prior to his death in the Apollo program.

After Freedom 7 and Liberty Bell 7, what was the next capsule, named by astronaut John Glenn?

1. Endeavor 3
2. Historic 1
3. Freedom 8
4. Intrepid 8
5. Friendship 7

Answer: 5. Friendship 7. John Glenn was a fighter pilot during the Korean war who had three aircraft nearly shot out from under him, but managed to get them back safely. A lot of confidence was put in his talent as a cool-headed pilot to get his craft home safely from the first orbital flight. His Friendship 7 spacecraft was launched by the larger Atlas rocket and his historic orbital flight was considered the greatest adventure of the 21st century, and helped America catch up in race with Russia.

John Glenn said "the view is tremendous" and nothing could compare to seeing the curvature of the Earth or entire nations at a glance. He also proved swallowing and breathing would not present a problem during extended Zero G (weightless) conditions. Mission Control dealt with its first possible crisis in space when indicators reported his heat shield was loose and his capsule might burn up in re-entry. They recommended he leave his retrorocket pack in place during re-entry hoping the straps would hold the heat shield in place, however the straps burned off during firing of the retros. Glenn wasn't informed of the possible condition of his craft, because there was nothing he could do about it. The heat shield, however, was not loose and it was later learned the micro-switch indicator reporting the problem was defective. His mission was a resounding success.

What causes radio blackout during re-entry?

1. Excessive heat
2. Extreme velocity
3. The sound barrier
4. Ionized plasma
5. Flames

Answer: 4. Ionized plasma generated by the velocity of the craft during re-entry builds up around the craft which causes the blackout of communications.

President Kennedy was a major supporter of the space program and reaching the Moon. What words completed his quote regarding the space program? "We have a long way to go in the space race...but this is _____________."

1. the most important goal...
2. the new ocean...
3. the future of America...
4. the next great challenge...
5. not worth the cost...

Answer: 2. President Kennedy described the exploration of space as "the new ocean." In a speech in 1962, he said, "We have a long way to go in the space race. We started late. But this is the new ocean, and I believe the United States must sail on it and be in a position second to none."

It was also President Kennedy who set the monumental goal to have an American walk on the Moon before the end of the decade--1970, only eight years in the future. The goal seemed an impossibility at the time that was--to the astonishment of many including those involved in the program--achieved in July 1969. President Kennedy was set on winning the space race.

Next post: More on the Mercury Program